The Classification oj Languages 187

same conclusion, as the reader may see by comparing the forms of the
veibs to be and to have displayed m tabular form on pp 101 and
below Three of the most characteristic grammatical features of the
Teutonic group are the following

(i) Throughout the Teutonic languages, there is the same type
(see table on p 190) of companson (English thin, farmer,
thinnest, German dunn, dunner, dunnst, Swedish tunn, tunnare,
tunnast)

(11) All members of the gioup form the past tense and past participle
of the verb in two ways (a) by modifying the root-vowel
(English sing, sang, sung, German smgen, sang, gesungen,
Danish synge, sang, sunget), (fc) by adding d or t to the stem
(English punish, punished, German strafen, strafte, gestraft,
Danish sttaffe, straffede, straffet)
(111) The typical genitive singular case-mark is -s, as in English

day's, Swedish dags, Danish Dags, German Tages
If we follow out our third clue^ we find a very striking series of
sound-shifts characteristic of each language We have had one example
of consonant equivalence in the Teutonic group Below is a single
example of vowel equivalence.

ENGLISH SWEDISH GERMAN

bone ben Bern

goat get Geiss

oak ek Eiche

stone sten Stein

whole hel heil

JO HAVE IN TEUTONIC LANGUAGES

1 NGUSH
SWTDISH
DANISH
DUTCH *
GERMAN*

I have
jag "\
7^ 1

z^heb
ic/z habe

thou hast
Du >har
Du

;z/ hcbt
du hast

he has
han}
han
* har
hij heeft
er hat

we "i
VI ""1
VI

wy 1
«nr haben

you I have
Ni lhava
De

julhe f-hebben
ihr habt

they }
df<? j
dc *.

ZIJ J
^e haben

I had

ik -]
ich hatte

thou iudst
7^, etc y hade

W \ had
<fa hattest

he ]

gr hatte

ws \ you j
70^5 <;rc * hade
;«!?> etc ,
wij 1 7«//z*i L hadden
wir hatten ihr hattet

r&ry J

havde
ZIJ \
$te hatten

/ have load
;## har haft
;«3£ har haft
ik heb gehad
ich habe gehabt

/ shall have
jag skall hava
jc^ s>kal have
ik zal hebben
ich werde haben

* For polite address German has Sid third person plural, Dutch has U+
third person singular (p